Understanding the procedure
Having a clear understanding of the penis construction options available will help you make an informed choice.
Surgical options to create a penis
A penis An erogenous and erectile organ located between the legs that consists of spongy tissue that can fill up with blood and may become firmer with sexual arousal. It is also a means for urination. A person may be born with a penis or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erogenous tissue (penis)" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB) and "penis" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. and scrotum (if desired) can be created through three different procedures, each with its own benefits, complications and risks. They are (in order of increasing complexity): erectile tissue release This procedure creates a penis by cutting the ligaments around the erectile tissue (clitoris), so the shaft falls away from the body, giving it a more pronounced appearance. , metoidioplasty A gender-affirming lower surgery to create a penis. Metoidioplasty involves cutting ligaments around the clitoris to add length to the shaft and grafting skin around the shaft to create more girth. Optional additional procedures include scrotoplasty and urethral lengthening. and phalloplasty A gender-affirming lower surgery to create a penis and scrotal sac (phase 1) followed by testicular implants and implants to obtain rigidity/erection (phases 2 and 3). .
Erectile tissue release This procedure creates a penis by cutting the ligaments around the erectile tissue (clitoris), so the shaft falls away from the body, giving it a more pronounced appearance. is also called “clitoral release” or “simple meta.”
Before surgery, people take testosterone to enlarge their erectile tissue Tissue that is capable of stiffening or engorging with blood, which typically occurs during sexual arousal. (clitoris An erogenous and erectile organ located above the urethral opening that consists of a complex network of erectile tissue and nerves, with parts located inside and outside the body. A person may be born with a clitoris or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erectile tissue (clitoris)" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), and "clitoris" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. ). Some people wait 2–3 years to achieve maximum growth before proceeding with surgery.
After this period of growth, erectile tissue release creates a penis An erogenous and erectile organ located between the legs that consists of spongy tissue that can fill up with blood and may become firmer with sexual arousal. It is also a means for urination. A person may be born with a penis or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erogenous tissue (penis)" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB) and "penis" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. that has a length of 2–4 cm but no additional girth. Erectile tissue release preserves sexual sensation and allows you to get erections without the assistance of an implant. However, you will not be able to pee while standing.
While some people may be able to have penetrative sex with an erectile tissue release penis, this is not an expected outcome of this surgery.
After surgery, some people seek to increase the size of their penis using techniques like a pump or topical testosterone directly on their penis. There is no evidence that these techniques are effective, and some could potentially be harmful, so we recommend that you speak with your surgical team before trying something new.
Procedure
Surgical techniques vary from surgeon to surgeon, but in general erectile tissue release includes the following steps.
- The ligaments holding the erectile tissue (clitoris) in place under the pubic bone are cut, allowing the shaft to fall away from the body, giving it a more pronounced appearance.
- Fat may be removed from the pubis and skin may be pulled upward to bring your erectile tissue forward (also called a monsplasty A procedure that removes fat from the pubis. May involve pulling the skin up to bring erectile tissue forward and improve the visibility of the penis shaft. ) to improve the visibility of the shaft.
Optional additional procedures
Additional procedures you can have in conjunction with an erectile tissue release include: construction of a scrotum (scrotoplasty A surgical procedure to create or reconstruct the scrotum, the pouch of skin that contains the testicles. ) and removal of the vagina An internal organ located between the legs. A person may be born with a vagina or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "internal genitals (vagina)" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), and "vagina" or "vagina with vaginoplasty" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. (vaginectomy A surgical procedure that involves the removal of vaginal tissue and the closure of the genital opening (vaginal canal). ). Testicular implants can be added at a later stage, if desired.
Scrotum construction (scrotoplasty)
The external genitals (labia The external genitals (folds of skin) around the vaginal opening. or outer labia) may be shaped into a scrotum. Creating a scrotum also allows for testicular implants to be placed inside the scrotum at a later stage, usually a minimum of six months after the initial surgery.
Vagina removal (vaginectomy)
This procedure involves the removal of vaginal tissue and closure of the genital opening (vaginal canal). In order to have a vaginectomy as part of your procedure, you need to have your uterus removed at least six months before your penis construction An umbrella term for gender-affirming genital surgeries that create a penis, including erectile tissue release, metoidioplasty and phalloplasty. surgery.
Before a metoidioplasty A gender-affirming lower surgery to create a penis. Metoidioplasty involves cutting ligaments around the clitoris to add length to the shaft and grafting skin around the shaft to create more girth. Optional additional procedures include scrotoplasty and urethral lengthening. surgery, people take testosterone to enlarge their erectile tissue Tissue that is capable of stiffening or engorging with blood, which typically occurs during sexual arousal. (clitoris An erogenous and erectile organ located above the urethral opening that consists of a complex network of erectile tissue and nerves, with parts located inside and outside the body. A person may be born with a clitoris or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erectile tissue (clitoris)" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), and "clitoris" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. ). Some people wait 2–3 years to achieve maximum growth before proceeding with surgery.
After this period of growth, metoidioplasty creates a penis An erogenous and erectile organ located between the legs that consists of spongy tissue that can fill up with blood and may become firmer with sexual arousal. It is also a means for urination. A person may be born with a penis or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erogenous tissue (penis)" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB) and "penis" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. that has a length of 2–4 cm. The girth of a metoidioplasty penis is variable and depends on your anatomy. Metoidioplasty preserves sexual sensation and allows you to get erections without the assistance of an implant. If you choose to have urethral lengthening A surgical procedure to extend the length of the urethra to allow for urination out of the tip of the penis. The procedure involves connecting a person's current urethra to the new urethra created in the shaft of the penis. (optional additional procedure), you will be able to pee while standing.
While some people may be able to have penetrative sex with a metoidioplasty penis, this is not an expected outcome of this surgery.
After surgery, some people seek options to increase the size of their penis using techniques like a pump or topical testosterone directly on their penis. There is no evidence yet that these techniques are effective, and some could potentially be harmful, so we recommend that you speak with your surgical team before trying something new.
Procedure
Surgical techniques vary from surgeon to surgeon, but in general metoidioplasty includes the following steps.
- The ligaments holding the erectile tissue (clitoris) in place under the pubic bone are cut, allowing the shaft to fall away from the body, giving it a more pronounced appearance.
- Labial tissue may be wrapped around the shaft to create more girth.
- Fat may be removed from the pubis and skin may be pulled upward to bring your erectile tissue forward (known as a monsplasty A procedure that removes fat from the pubis. May involve pulling the skin up to bring erectile tissue forward and improve the visibility of the penis shaft. ) to improve the visibility of the shaft.
Optional additional procedures
Some people choose to have metoidioplasty without any additional procedures, while others choose to have it in combination with urethral lengthening, scrotum construction (scrotoplasty A surgical procedure to create or reconstruct the scrotum, the pouch of skin that contains the testicles. ) and/or vagina An internal organ located between the legs. A person may be born with a vagina or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "internal genitals (vagina)" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), and "vagina" or "vagina with vaginoplasty" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. removal (vaginectomy A surgical procedure that involves the removal of vaginal tissue and the closure of the genital opening (vaginal canal). ).
Urethral lengthening
Urethral lengthening enables a person to pee while standing. It re-routes the urethra (tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body) up through the tip of the penis. Lengthening may be done using tissue from the vagina, inner labia The external genitals (folds of skin) around the vaginal opening. or inside of the mouth.
If you forgo urethral lengthening, your urethra will remain in the same position and you will pee from the area behind your penis (and scrotum if created).
Urethral lengthening can increase the risk of urologic complications, which are described under Risks & Complications below.
Scrotum construction (scrotoplasty)
The external genitals (labia or outer labia) may be shaped into a scrotum. Creating a scrotum also allows for testicular implants to be placed inside the scrotum at a later stage, usually a minimum of six months after the initial surgery.
Vagina removal (vaginectomy)
This procedure involves the removal of vaginal tissue and closure of the genital opening (vaginal canal). In order to have a vaginectomy as part of your procedure, you need to have your uterus removed at least six months before your penis construction An umbrella term for gender-affirming genital surgeries that create a penis, including erectile tissue release, metoidioplasty and phalloplasty. surgery.
The goal of phalloplasty A gender-affirming lower surgery to create a penis and scrotal sac (phase 1) followed by testicular implants and implants to obtain rigidity/erection (phases 2 and 3). is to create a penis An erogenous and erectile organ located between the legs that consists of spongy tissue that can fill up with blood and may become firmer with sexual arousal. It is also a means for urination. A person may be born with a penis or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erogenous tissue (penis)" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB) and "penis" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. that has:
- A length of 12–15 cm and a thicker girth
- A head (glans The rounded head (or tip) of a penis or the end of the clitoris. )
- Sexual sensation and can get erections with the assistance of an implant (if desired)
- Enough length and bulk to be used for penetrative sexual intercourse (with an implant or external stiffening device)
- The ability to pee while standing (when urethral lengthening A surgical procedure to extend the length of the urethra to allow for urination out of the tip of the penis. The procedure involves connecting a person's current urethra to the new urethra created in the shaft of the penis. is chosen).
Surgical techniques vary from surgeon to surgeon, but in general phalloplasty includes the following steps.
- Skin, nerves, veins and arteries from your forearm (radial forearm flap or RFF Phalloplasty performed using tissue from the forearm to contruct the penis and urethra (if opting for urethral lengthening). ) or the thigh (anterolateral thigh flap or ALT Phalloplasty performed using tissue from the thigh to contruct the penis and urethra (if opting for urethral lengthening). ) are removed. This is called a graft A surgical procedure in which one section of healthy skin is removed from a part of the body and used in another location (or in the same location in the case of nipple grafts). . Part of this skin is used to create a tube that becomes the penis shaft and head (also called glans). And if you choose to have urethra lengthening (see optional additional procedures below), a second tube will be constructed to extend your urethra.
- Surgeons will place a device known as a wound VAC (vacuum-assisted closure of a wound) on the donor site The area of the body from which tissue is taken for use in a procedure (phalloplasty, for example). where your skin graft comes from to help it heal.
- Around 3–5 weeks after the first surgery, surgeons will remove the wound VAC from the penile donor site. At this time, a skin graft from another part of the body (such as the thigh) is used to cover the penile donor site.
- At a later stage, surgeons will place a penile implant (if desired and medically feasible). Testicular implants may also happen at this stage if a person chooses to have scrotum construction. Placement of implants can happen a year or so after the initial surgery, but may also take longer if someone has experienced complications.
Donor tissue
There are two potential donor sites for phalloplasty surgery: your forearm (called the radial forearm flap or RFF) or your thigh (called the anterolateral thigh flap or ALT). The choice between donor sites will be something you discuss with your surgeon.
With RFF, your donor scar will be on your forearm. RFF usually results in a slimmer penis.
With ALT, your donor scar will be on your thigh. ALT usually results in a penis that is thicker and may require some debulking after surgery.
Optional additional procedures
Some people choose to have phalloplasty without any additional procedures, while others choose to have it in combination with urethral lengthening, scrotum construction (scrotoplasty A surgical procedure to create or reconstruct the scrotum, the pouch of skin that contains the testicles. ), construction of the head of the penis (glansplasty), penile implants and/or vagina An internal organ located between the legs. A person may be born with a vagina or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "internal genitals (vagina)" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), and "vagina" or "vagina with vaginoplasty" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. removal (vaginectomy A surgical procedure that involves the removal of vaginal tissue and the closure of the genital opening (vaginal canal). ).
Urethral lengthening
Urethral lengthening enables a person to pee while standing. It involves re-routing the urethra (tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body) up through the tip of the penis. Lengthening may be done using nearby tissue from the same skin graft that made the penis.
If you forgo urethral lengthening, your urethra will remain in the same position and you will pee from the area behind your penis (and scrotum if created).
Urethral lengthening can increase the risk of urologic complications, which are described under Risks & Complications below.
Scrotum construction (scrotoplasty)
The external genitals (labia The external genitals (folds of skin) around the vaginal opening. or outer labia) may be shaped into a scrotum. Creating a scrotum also allows for testicular implants to be placed inside the scrotum at a later stage, usually a minimum of six months after the initial surgery.
Vagina removal (vaginectomy)
This procedure involves the removal of vaginal tissue and closure of the genital opening (vaginal canal). This procedure involves the removal of vaginal tissue and the closing of genital opening (vaginal canal). In order to have a vaginectomy as part of your procedure, you need to have your uterus removed at least six months before your penis construction An umbrella term for gender-affirming genital surgeries that create a penis, including erectile tissue release, metoidioplasty and phalloplasty. surgery.
Construction of the head of penis (glansplasty)
This procedure constructs the glans (head of the penis) and the result is a circumcised-looking penis. This usually happens following the initial surgery. The surgeon will use additional skin to create the glans ridge which gives shape and texture to the head of your penis.
Penile implant
A penile implant allows the penis to become erect. This procedure involves insertion of prosthesis Refers to a device that can be used to modify or enhance physical features to align with an individual's gender. This can include items such as breast forms, hip or buttock padding, packers, binders, or prosthetic genitals. This term can also refer to an inflatable or non-inflatable implant is placed inside the penis after phalloplasty, allowing the penis to become erect. , such as an inflatable device, and happens at a later stage. Implants have a lifespan and may need to be replaced over time.
Risks & complications
All medical interventions have potential risks and benefits. It’s important that you understand the risks of having surgery so you can decide whether the potential benefits outweigh the potential risk of surgical complications. This list is not intended to scare you or dissuade you from having surgery but rather to help you make an informed decision.
General risks associated with surgery
Anesthesia issues — Some people experience a negative reaction to anesthesia.
Cardiovascular issues — Such as blood loss, blood clots and artery blockages.
Hematoma — This is when blood collects in the surgical site, causing pain, swelling and redness. Drains Thin tubes placed in the body during surgery to remove excess fluid or blood. and compression bandages are used to prevent hematomas. Smaller hematomas can be sucked out, but larger ones require removal through surgery.
Seroma — This is when clear fluid accumulates in the surgical site. Your surgeon will manage this complication. The ways in which it might be managed include monitoring, clinical exam, ultrasound or possibly drainage.
Infection — This is when microorganisms such as bacteria get inside the body. Infection can occur at different locations such as the surgical site or bladder and are generally treated with antibiotics.
Abscess formation — This is a collection of pus caused by a bacterial infection. It can be treated with antibiotics or drained by the surgeon.
Wound separation — This is when there is a partial or complete opening of incisions along the sutures Sterile medical threads, also called stitches, used to close surgical incisions. .
Nerve damage and pain — There is a wide range of possible experiences related to how nerves heal after surgery. Some changes are short term and some are long term or permanent. Some changes are mild and inconvenient, while others are painful and distressing. Changes can include numbness, increased sensitivity, burning sensations and nerve displacement (sensation may feel like it’s occurring in one place but the stimulus is in another part of the body). Speak with your surgical team about any concerns you have about sensation or pain management.
Scarring — Scarring can be reduced by following your surgeon’s advice, which may include activity restrictions, avoiding sun, seeing a physiotherapist or massage therapist and doing massage exercises (if recommended). Severe scarring may require medical intervention or surgical revision A follow-up procedure or adjustment to a previous surgical operation or treatment to correct or improve its outcome. .
Postoperative regret — Regret can happen for several reasons, such as experiencing significant complications or being dissatisfied with the outcome of surgery.
Risks specific to penis construction
Dissatisfaction with appearance or function — The size or shape of your penis An erogenous and erectile organ located between the legs that consists of spongy tissue that can fill up with blood and may become firmer with sexual arousal. It is also a means for urination. A person may be born with a penis or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erogenous tissue (penis)" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB) and "penis" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. or scrotum may not align with your expectations. Your penis may not function in the ways that you had hoped. Sometimes when this happens a surgical revision is possible. Visit Life after Surgery for more information on surgical revisions.
Decreased sexual satisfaction or inability to orgasm — There is risk of decreased sensation or inability to achieve orgasm after surgery. Changes to sensation are also possible.
Catheter A thin, flexible tube that is inserted into the body to remove fluids from or introduce fluids into a specific area, like the bladder or bloodstream. These tubes are also used in some procedures to keep passages open. complications — Having a catheter can cause urinary tract infections. The catheter can also malfunction or become blocked.
Bladder spasms — These are common when a catheter is in place and can vary from mild to debilitating. They can feel like an abnormal cramp or that you need to pee but can’t. Your surgeon may prescribe a medication to try to help relax your bladder. Drinking lots of fluids can help with this.
Urethral lengthening A surgical procedure to extend the length of the urethra to allow for urination out of the tip of the penis. The procedure involves connecting a person's current urethra to the new urethra created in the shaft of the penis. complications — If you are considering urethral lengthening, it’s important to know that it’s a complex procedure and complications are to be expected including:
- Fistulas: flow of urine to areas other than urethra opening
- Stenosis: narrowing of the urethra causing difficulty urinating
- Strictures: scarring inside the urethra, causing difficulty urinating
- Hair growth inside the urethra
Sometimes urological complications will resolve on their own with time, and other times they will require additional surgery.
Scrotoplasty A surgical procedure to create or reconstruct the scrotum, the pouch of skin that contains the testicles. complications — The placement of the scrotum may cause discomfort if the testicles press upwards into the groin or make it uncomfortable to sit. Infection can also occur with the addition of testicular implants.
Vaginectomy A surgical procedure that involves the removal of vaginal tissue and the closure of the genital opening (vaginal canal). complications — These include delayed wound healing, injury to surrounding tissues (bladder, rectum), abscess formation, partial regrowth of the tissue after surgical closure and infection.
Donor site The area of the body from which tissue is taken for use in a procedure (phalloplasty, for example). complications (arm or leg) — This may include numbness, swelling (edema) and reduced strength and function. Numbness usually resolves in a few weeks. Permanent changes to sensation or function are rare but possible. Some people experience ongoing swelling, reduced strength, function and mobility near the donor site (for example, in the wrist and hand or leg) and may require prolonged physiotherapy to recover. Applies to phalloplasty A gender-affirming lower surgery to create a penis and scrotal sac (phase 1) followed by testicular implants and implants to obtain rigidity/erection (phases 2 and 3). only.
Tissue transfer complications — These are related to the transfer of skin from your penile donor site to your groin. There is a small risk of a partial or complete loss of the penis if the transfer is unsuccessful. Applies to phalloplasty only.
Please note
This list is not comprehensive and you should have a detailed discussion about risks with your surgeon.
Comparing procedures
This table provides an overview of the benefits, costs and risks for each surgery so that you can easily compare your options.
| Erectile Tissue Release This procedure creates a penis by cutting the ligaments around the erectile tissue (clitoris), so the shaft falls away from the body, giving it a more pronounced appearance. | Metoidioplasty A gender-affirming lower surgery to create a penis. Metoidioplasty involves cutting ligaments around the clitoris to add length to the shaft and grafting skin around the shaft to create more girth. Optional additional procedures include scrotoplasty and urethral lengthening. | Phalloplasty A gender-affirming lower surgery to create a penis and scrotal sac (phase 1) followed by testicular implants and implants to obtain rigidity/erection (phases 2 and 3). | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Length | A penis An erogenous and erectile organ located between the legs that consists of spongy tissue that can fill up with blood and may become firmer with sexual arousal. It is also a means for urination. A person may be born with a penis or have one surgically created. When referring to genitals, the Trans Care BC website uses "erogenous tissue (penis)" for trans people assigned male at birth (AMAB) and "penis" for trans people assigned female at birth (AFAB), but there are many different terms that individuals may use. that is 2–4 cm longer than the length achieved through testosterone therapy | A penis that is 2–4 cm longer than the length achieved through hormone therapy | A penis that is 12–15 cm long |
| Girth | No change (erectile tissue Tissue that is capable of stiffening or engorging with blood, which typically occurs during sexual arousal. is not built up to achieve additional girth) | Variable (depends on individual anatomy) | A thick penis (Note: ALT Phalloplasty performed using tissue from the thigh to contruct the penis and urethra (if opting for urethral lengthening). results in a thicker penis than RFF Phalloplasty performed using tissue from the forearm to contruct the penis and urethra (if opting for urethral lengthening). ) |
| Erections | Yes (variable) | Yes (variable) | Only with penile implant or external stiffening device |
| Peeing | No change in position of urethra | Stand to pee (with urethral lengthening A surgical procedure to extend the length of the urethra to allow for urination out of the tip of the penis. The procedure involves connecting a person's current urethra to the new urethra created in the shaft of the penis. ) | Stand to pee (with urethral lengthening) |
| Penetrative sex | Some people may be able to have penetrative sex, but this is not an expected outcome of this surgery. | Some people may be able to have penetrative sex, but this is not an expected outcome of this surgery. | Yes, with penile implant or external stiffening device |
| Number of surgeries | 1–2 surgeries More if revisions needed | 1–2 surgeries More if revisions needed | 2–4 surgeries More if revisions needed |
| Recovery time | In hospital for about 3–5 days ~3–6 weeks of post surgery care & recovery | In hospital for about 3–5 days ~6–8 weeks of post surgery care & recovery | In hospital for about a week, then stay in Lower Mainland to be close to surgical team for one week ~3–6 months of post surgery care & recovery |
| Visit Recovering from Surgery for more information on the recovery process. | |||
| Scars | Ranges from no visible scars to minor scars Scarring may occur with additional procedures (such as monsplasty A procedure that removes fat from the pubis. May involve pulling the skin up to bring erectile tissue forward and improve the visibility of the penis shaft. ) | Ranges from no visible scars to minor scars Scarring may occur with additional procedures (such as monsplasty) | Significant scarring to the donor site The area of the body from which tissue is taken for use in a procedure (phalloplasty, for example). (typically forearm) Lighter scarring to skin graft A surgical procedure in which one section of healthy skin is removed from a part of the body and used in another location (or in the same location in the case of nipple grafts). donor site Scarring at supra-pubic catheter A thin, flexible tube that is inserted into the body to remove fluids from or introduce fluids into a specific area, like the bladder or bloodstream. These tubes are also used in some procedures to keep passages open. site (from urethral lengthening) Scarring at the base of the penis from incisions |
| Costs | Missing work (or school) for ~3 weeks Travel & accommodation Medical supplies & medications needed after discharge from hospital | Missing ~6–8 weeks of work (or school) for initial procedure and ~2 weeks for each additional procedure Travel & accommodation Medical supplies & medications needed after discharged from hospital | Missing ~4 months of work (or school) for initial procedure (some people may need more time) and ~2 weeks for each additional procedure Travel & accommodation Medical supplies & medications needed after discharged from hospital |
| Risks & Complications | Dissatisfaction with size & shape of penis, scrotum or testicular implants Implant complications (if done) Catheter complications Wound separation | Dissatisfaction with size & shape of penis, scrotum or testicular implants Implant complications (if done) Nerve damage and pain Urological complications (with urethral lengthening) Catheter complications Tissue transfer complications (wound breakdown, infection, etc.) Incision site separation or other complication | Dissatisfaction with size & shape of penis, urethra, scrotum or implants Implant complications (if done) Numbness and swelling to surgical area Donor site complications Urological complications (hair growth, leaking, narrowing or blocking of urethra) Catheter complications Tissue transfer complications (wound breakdown, infection, etc.) Incision site separation or other complication |
| General risks (with any surgery) | Negative reactions to anesthesia, abscess formation, hematoma, scarring, seroma, nerve damage, blood clot, etc. Your surgical team will review these with you in detail. | ||
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